In birds, clinical examination and history taking are rarely sufficient to result in a complete diagnosis. Many diseases present with similar clinical signs, so it is therefore necessary in most investigations to take clinical samples for laboratory analysis. There are many options available to clinicians and this chapter describes some of the more commonly performed tests. Quick reference guides: Blood sampling – jugular vein; Blood sampling – brachial vein; Blood sampling – caudal tibial vein; Crop wash.

Dogs presented with neurological problems are often viewed as particularly challenging to diagnose and manage. Animals with neurological diseases may present with a variety of clinical signs, including seizures, ataxia, pain, paresis/paralysis and behavioural changes. This chapter deals with history, physical examination and common conditions. Quick Reference Guides: Short ‘screening’ neurological examination; Emergency treatment of status epilepticus.

Skin masses, nodules and swellings are a common presentation as they are visible to owners and often worry them. Solid, cystic or oedematous elevations of the skin may be epidermal or dermal, or may extend into the subcutaneous fat and panniculus. All masses and nodules are composed of accumulations of cells, which can be neoplastic, inflammatory, or a mixture of the two. This chapter considers history, clinical examination, differential diagnoses, diagnostic approach, empirical treatment whilst awaiting results, when to refer and what to do if finances are limited. Quick reference guide: Fine-needle aspiration.

Sneezing and nasal discharge are common presenting clinical signs in cats, indicating disease within the nasal cavity or nasopharynx. Unlike many other presenting clinical signs, the differential diagnoses for these signs are relatively limited, and diagnostics are also limited to a number of key procedures. This chapter will look at differential diagnoses and diagnostic approach. Quick reference guides: Evaluating the nasopharynx; Nasal flushing and biopsy.

The rabbit ultrasonographer is faced with a number of difficulties. There are few reference data regarding the normal and abnormal ultrasonographic anatomy of this species and also relatively few individuals who are familiar with both ultrasonography and the veterinary aspects of the rabbit patient. This chapter looks at equipment, indications for ultrasonography, abdominal and thoracic ultrasonography, ultrasonography of the eye and conditions for which ultrasound examination can be diagnostic. Quick Reference Guides/Techniques: Ultrasound examination of the abdomen; Echocardiography.

Shelter medicine is a newly emerging discipline of veterinary medicine, which involves working closely with charitable organizations. This chapter covers: clinical approach to herd health in companion animals, the decision-making process, challenges of shelter medicine, principles and skills needed to meet the challenges. Quick reference guide: Top 10 tips for shelter medicine vets.