Abnormal droppings, and a decreased appetite, are probably the most frequent first clinical signs of gastrointestinal tract disease. This chapter provides information on the normal appearance of droppings and a systematic approach to diagnosis of the underlying conditions causing diarrhoea. Case examples: African Grey Parrot with green, malodorous, voluminous faeces; Hawk-headed Parrot with haematochezia; Cockatiel with biliverdinuria.

A simple presentation of ‘swollen eye’ could be the result of a panoply of diseases. Most of these conditions are difficult to treat and management, rather than treatment, may be required. This chapter explains the processes of ophthalmic examination, approaching infraorbital sinusitis, approaching conjunctivitis and differentiating globe enlargement and exophthalmos. Case examples: Conure with squamous cell carcinoma; Budgerigar with a retrobulbar mass; Magpie with avian poxvirus.

Many birds are social animals with a diverse range of communication tools. Unfortunately, the subtleties of avian behaviour are often lost on many owners despite deep affection for their avian pets. This chapter will provide veterinarians with the tools to give much needed guidance in this area. Case examples: Finches flying frantically when disturbed; Galah ‘aggression’ towards family members; Bird–owner misunderstanding; Galah reluctant to ‘step up’.

Body cavity effusions occur when there is abnormal accumulation of fluid in a body cavity. In dogs and cats, effusions commonly occur in the pleural, peritoneal or pericardeal spaces. Clinical signs, such as dyspnoea, lethargy, exercise intolerance and abdominal distension, can be due to the presence of the effusion, the disease responsible for producing the effusion or both. The chapter looks at the pathophysiology of effusion formation, collection of body cavity effusions, laboratory evaluation and the classification of effusions. This chapter also includes case examples.

Ongoing pain in dogs and cats presents specific challenges in terms of diagnosis, evaluation of pain, and response to treatment. Musculoskeletal pain represents a significant disease burden in veterinary species, with 20% of adult dogs and over 22% of adult cats demonstrating radiographic signs of degenerative joint disease.

Wound healing complications are often difficult to deal with, as there are so many factors involved in the wound healing process and an almost infinite variety of wound types. Furthermore, the complication may be as a result of surgical intervention, and there may be as a result of surgical intervention, and there may be extra pressure from an owner for the problem to be resolved, as it may be perceived as being the fault of the veterinary surgeon. There is no generic formula or ‘recipe’ that can be applied to any one type of wound. This chapter finishes with a description of the causes and treatment of some wound complications, with specific guidance. It is important to remember that these general principles , discussed in the first section, can be applied to any type of wound. The following sections are covered: Why and how do complications occur?; Managing complications of conservative (non-surgical) wound management; and Managing complications of surgical wound management. Case examples: Management of a non-healing wound; Management of a wound dehiscence and Management of a persistent seroma.

It has long been recognized that some diseases in domestic animals are due wholly or partly to inheritance, with Darwin himself describing inherited conditions such as polydactyly in the dog and cat, and noting that there is a ‘unanimity of belief among veterinaries of all nations in the transmission of various morbid tendencies’ ( Darwin, 1865 ). Since Darwin’s time, numerous inherited diseases have been described in companion animals. This chapter discusses the canine and feline genome, basic genetics, diagnosis of genetic disease and DNA testing. This section includes case examples.

Viral infections of small animals are common and frequently represent an important cause of disease.Although precise diagnosis is not always necessary, it may be required to determine appropriate therapy and prognosis, and to give advice about the potential for disease in other susceptible animals sharing the same environment. This chapter deals with virus detection, antibody detection, feline viruses and canine viruses. The section concludes with case examples.

Diarrhoea is a common presentation in dog shelters, and can range from occasional low-level ‘grumbling’ problems to outbreaks with high mortality. This chapter explores the management of diarrhoea, with consideration of morbidity levels, aetiology, environmental management and the potential for cross-species transmission, including zoonosis. Case examples: Parvovirus at the local rehoming shelter; Rehoming a Campylobacter-positive dog.

Haemostasis is a simple word that means ‘stop bleeding’. Yet the simplicity of the word belies the incredible complexity of a process whereby an array of cells and proteins intimately interact in a finely tuned and balanced system, first to form a fibrin clot then to dissolve the clot to restore vessel patency. This chapter considers an overview of haemostasis, diagnostic assays for haemostasis and disorders of haemostasis. Case examples are included.

Plasma protein abnormalities are associated with a wide variety of disease processes and are a significant biochemical finding in both dogs and cats. The plasma proteins are comprised of albumin, globulin and fibrinogen fractions. The chapter considers methods of measuring protein, serum protein electrophoresis, functions of plasma proteins, hyperproteinaemia, hypoproteinaemia and acute phase proteins. The chapter also includes case studies.

The major electrolytes in the body are potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium. Electrolyte concentrations are closely controlled by the action of multiple hormones and by the kidneys. Derangements affect many body organs including the nervous system and cardiac and skeletal muscle. Major imbalances can cause severe clinical signs and death. This chapter looks at measurement of electrolyte concentrations in serum and plasma, disorders of potassium homeostasis, disorders of sodium homeostasis, disorders of chloride homeostasis, disorders of magnesium homeostasis and disorders of calcium homeostasis. Case studies are included.

Free skin grafts involve the transfer of variable thicknesses of dermis, with the epidermis, from a donor site to the recipient wound site. In veterinary wound management, grafts are exclusively autografts (i.e. donor and recipient are the same patient). Free grafts find occasional application in the reconstruction of full-thickness skin defects involving the extremities of the dog and cat. However, by comparison with other reconstruction techniques has a number of limitations. Indications for skin grafting; How skin grafts ‘take’; Harvesting the graft; Preparing the graft; Recipient sites; Applying the graft; Care of the graft; Interpreting graft appearance; The functional and cosmetic result; and Troubleshooting are all covered. Case examples: Free skin grafting for a chronic open wound; and Free skin grafting for a burn wound.

Hyperthyroidism is a common condition of senior and geriatric cats that is present in 6% of cats over the age of nine years old. Similarly chronic kidney disease is common in old cats, hence it is not uncommon for cats with CKD to have concurrent hyperthyroidism, and vice versa. This chapter includes sections on hyperthyroidism and chronic kidney disease in cats; systemic effects of hyperthyroidism; systemic effects of treatment of hyperthyroidism; effect of iatrogenic hypothyroidism on renal function; predictors of the development of azotaemia following treatment of hyperthyroid cats; and management of hyperthyroid cats with concurrent, or masked, CKD. Case examples: Cat with polydipsia, diarrhoea and weight loss; Cat with weight loss and polyphagia; Cat with polydipsia, polyphagia and diarrhoea

Each adrenal gland is composed of acortex and a medulla, which are functionally separate endocrine glands. The most common disorders affect the adrenal cortex and cause eitjer hyperadrenocorticism (HAC) or hypoadrenocorticism. This chapter considers canine hyperadrenocorticism, feline hyperadrenocorticism, canine hypoadrenocorticism, feline hypoadrenocorticism and other adrenal diseases. Readers will also find case examples included.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) collection and laboratory analysis are recommended as part of the investigation of central nervous system (CNS) disease. A definitive daignosis on the basis of CSF laboratory evaluation alone is rare, but the laboratory evaluation of CSF may provide documentation of normal or abnormal findings and help make distinctions among various differential diagnoses. This chapter covers CSF collection, laboratory analysis of CSF, normal and abnormal CSF and CSF findings in selected clinical conditions. Case examples are included.

The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is relatively inaccessible, and laboratory investigations are an important component of the diagnostic approach to GI diseases. Although alone they often do not provide a definitive diagnosis, they are helpful in ruling out non-GI causes of GI signs, narrowing the list of differential diagnoses and directing further more specialized and potentially more invasive diagnostic procedures. The chapter discusses a diagnostic approach to gastrointestinal problems, routine diagnostic procedures and specialized diagnostic tests. The chapter also contains case examples.

This chapter looks at laboratory evaluation of hypoglycaemia and hyperglycaemia. The following topics are considered: glucose homeostasis, measurement of blood glucose, hypoglycaemia, hyperglycaemia and diabetes mellitus. Case studies are included.

Laboratory evaluation of joint disease is based on examination of synovial fluid. Synovial fluid analysis rarely yields a definitive aetiological diagnosis but it does help to confirm the presence of an arthropathy, to discriminate between broad categories of joint disease, and to guide the choice of further tests (e.g. serology, culture, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), antinuclear antibody titre, rheumatoid factor titre, etc.). This chapter considers physiology and composition, pathogenesis of joint effusion, indications and contraindications for arthrocentesis, arthrocentesis technique, synovial fluid analysis and further tests. Case examples can be found at the end of this section.

Muscle disease can affect skeletal (striated), cardiac and, more rarely, smooth muscle. It can be primary or secondary to other systemic disorders but can be difficult to recognize clinically owing to its non-specific signs. Even when muscle disease is supected, the appropriate diagnostic work-up is often poorly understood and test results can be misinterpreted. This chapter discusses clinical sign sof muscle disorders, laboratory evaluation of muscle disorders and tests used in the investigation of skeletal (striated) muscle disorders. Case examples are included.

Very few skin disorders have an unequivocally pathognomonic appearance and almost all require some form of laboratory investigation to confirm the diagnosis. Fortunately, the skin is readily accessible. Most tests are straightforward and can be accessed in a practice laboratory. This chapter considers the investigation of skin disease and otoscopes and examination of the ears. Case examples are also considered.

Leukaemia is a malignant transformation of cells of the haemopoietic system and is characterized by an abnormal proliferation of blood cells, usually white blood cells. Leukaemia is a broad term covering a spectrum of diseases that includes acute leukaemia, chronic leukaemia and the leukaemic phase of lymphoma. Although Leukaemia is not a common condition, it is important because of the diagnostic challenges in distinguishing the different types, which have varying treatment outcomes and prognoses. This chapter considers the haemopoietic system – leucocyte lineages; aetiology; acute leukaemia; chronic leukaemia; myelodysplastic syndrome; general approach to the leukaemic patient; management of leukaemia. Case examples: An 11-year-old female Golden Retriever weighing 32.0 kg; A 9.5-year-old neutered Boxer weighing 30.2 kg.

Open wound management in small animals is a common event in veterinary practice. It is economically significant and can cause considerable distress and pain to the animal. The aim of wound management is to provide conditions that allow for optimal wound healing or to prepare the wound for definitive closure by reconstructive techniques. However, every wound is unique and this problem is reflected in the paucity of published studies analysing the effectiveness of wound dressing products in the management of small animal wounds. Wounds must be properly evaluated at the first presentation in order to plan a treatment protocol and to give the owner an indication of the expected duration of treatment and ultimately the prognosis. This chapter considers how to manage open wounds and how to use dressings and bandages to optimize the healing process. The following topics are addressed: Principles of wound management; Wound lavage; Wound debridement; Systemic treatments; Bandages and dressings; Topical medications; Primary (contact) layer wound dressings; Bandaging; and Wound management strategy and planning. This chapter also includes case examples focusing on Open wound management of a chronic shear injury prior to skin grafting; and Management of an acute road traffic shear injury. Case examples: Open wound management of a chronic shear injury; Management of an acute road traffic shear injury

Recognition and effective treatment of ophthalmic pain may present the clinician with a challenge due to difficulties in patient assessment. Treatment relies on the recognition of pain followed by effective analgesia. This chapter discusses analgesia for enucleation, eyelid, corneal and deep ocular pain. Local anaesthetic techniques are described in depth. Case examples: Bilateral lower lid entropion correction; Enucleation.

Alleviating pain in exotic species is often overlooked, or the extent of pain is underestimated. This chapter discusses the complications associated with pain management in exotic species, and provides advice on adapting methods used in dogs and cats. Case examples: Mammary mass removal in rats; Shell trauma in tortoises.